research problem

NTRODUCTION

A research problem is a question that researcher wants to
answer or a problem that a researcher wants to solve
Identification & formulation of a research problem is the first
step of the research process.
Selection of research problem depends on several factors such
as researcher’s knowledge, skills, interest, expertise, motivation
& creativity with respect to the subject of inquiry.
It is believed that most of the good research studies need lots of
time for selection of a research problem.

R.S. Woodworth defines problem as ‘a situation for which we have
no ready & successful response by instinct or by previous
acquired habit. We must find out what to do’, i.e. the solution
can be found out only after an investigation.

DENTIFICATION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM
Identification of a research problem is the first & most important
step in research process.
Generally, a broad area is selected & then a broad topic is delimited
or narrowed down to a specific one-sentence statement of the
problem.
This step of the research process is considered as the most difficult
& challenging, & need slots of time.

Preparing for the Focus Group Discussion

Preparing for the Focus Group Discussion

When preparing for the focus group discussions there are several considerations including what questions will be asked, who will participate, where will the discussions be held, and who will conduct the sessions? The first order of business is to develop a discussion guide.
Developing the Discussion Guide. The discussion guide contains the questions which will be asked to participants during the discussion sessions. Approximately 10 to 15 questions should be used for the discussion. Avoid spending to much time on background information and concentrate on the important issues that you wish to cover. There are two elements which should be considered when drafting the guide. First, it is necessary to identify who you want to obtain information from and second, what type of information it is that you want to obtain.
For the purpose of this report, it was determined that five discussion groups of frequent transit users, non-users, freshman, and potential transit users (Two sessions of UPARK shuttlebus regular users) would be conducted. It was felt these groups would provide different opinions regarding the UPASS program.
After determining who the information is being obtained from, it is necessary to consider want information will be obtained. With this study, we were interested in finding not only the good points of the program, but also the points that could be improved to make it more successful. In addition, questions pertaining to the quality of the transit system and the marketing of the program were also explored.
When developing the questions, keep in mind that all discussion groups should follow the same discussion guide. A question such as "Who benefits the most from UPASS?", could receive different responses depending on whether the participants are users, or non-users. By using a general format for each question, it allows the analyst to make comparisons between the responses of the various groups.
Reserve a Time and Place. Reserving a time and place to conduct the discussion is something which should be done well in advance to the actual date of the discussion sessions. By finding a location quickly, it will allow time to contact potential participants with the necessary information regarding the time and location of the sessions.
There are several options available when selecting a location to conduct the discussions. For this study, classrooms on-campus were reserved for approximately a three hour time slot. This allowed time to set-up prior to the discussion, conduct the session, and clean-up afterward. In addition, an adjacent classroom across the hall was also reserved where members of MCTS, CUTS, and the UWM Parking and Transit department viewed the discussion sessions via a closed circuit television. Only the moderator and focus group participants should be in the discussion room during the session.
Another option for conducting the focus group is to hold the sessions at a focus group discussion facility. Marketing firms often have special facilities in which they conduct focus group discussions. Keep in mind a focus group discussion facility will add to the cost of the project.
When selecting a location, try to find the most convenient and accessible location as possible. Since this study consisted of students, it was felt that the discussion sessions should be held on-campus to increase the likelihood of students participating.
Provide an Incentive For Participation. Individuals taking part in a discussion session should be compensated for their participation. When contacting potential participants use an incentive to encourage or persuade an individual to take part in a discussion session.
Various forms of compensation can be used with the most common being a cash payment, lunch or dinner. Snacks and beverages may also be provided at the discussion. This often eases the tension created by the focus group setting and makes participants more open to discussing the topic. For this study, participants received $20 apiece for taking part in the discussion.
Determine What Equipment is Needed. The research team must determine how detailed of information they want to obtain from the discussion. This will determine whether to audio tape, videotape, or simply take notes. For this study, the discussion sessions were videotaped and were also viewed via closed circuit television. The videotapes were later reviewed by members of the research team to prepare a written report. The advantage of videotaping is it allows the research team to easily make note of the time important quotes and comments were made during the discussion. This will allow the person reviewing the tape to quickly locate these comments and record the exact information.
If the sessions will be videotaped, it is necessary to reserve the equipment well in advance of the sessions. Equipment which is needed includes:

• A video recorder.
• A microphone which should be placed at the discussion table.
• A videotape per session (Note: One videotape will hold approximately two hours of time).
• A television if the session is going to be viewed by persons other than the moderator during the discussion session. (Note: Only the moderator and the focus group participants should be in the discussion room while the discussion is taking place.)
• Wires to connect the microphone, video recorder, and television. (Note: The wires should be taped or secured to the floor.)

It is our recommendation to videotape the sessions as well as having a closed circuit television to view the discussion. The closed circuit television allows the research team to have the moderator ask follow-up questions or more specific questions regarding the topic. If notes are taken by the research team during the session, this will also facilitate the development of a report for the focus group.

Research Process

Research is aprocess of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue". It consists of three steps: Pose a question, collect data to answer the question, and present an answer to the question.

STEPS OF RESEARCH PROCESS
•
Step One: Define research problem
•
Step Two: Review of literature
•
Step Three: Formulate hypotheses
•
Step Four: Preparing the research design
•
Step Five: Data collection
•
Step Six: Data analysis
•
Step Seven: Interpretation and report writing


Step One: Define Research Problem
There are two types of research problem, viz., those
 relate to states of nature
 relationship between variables.
Essentially  two steps  are  involved  in  define  research problem, viz.,
 understanding the problem thoroughly and
 rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an point of view.

Step Two: Review of Literature

 Once the problem is define, a brief summary of it should be written down. It is compulsory for a 

research worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D. degree to write a synopsis of topic and submit it to 

necessary committee or the research board for approval.

Step Three: Formulate Hypothesis

 Formulate hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or  

empirical consequences. Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in 

hand because it has to be tested.

The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and to 

keep him on the

right track.

Step Four: Preparing the Research Design



The function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with minimal 

expenditure of effort, time and money.



Research purpose may be grouped into four categories, viz., (1) Exploration, (2) Description,(3) 

Diagnosis, and (4) Experimentation.

Step Five: Data Collection

 Primary data can be collected through: By Observation

Through personal interview Through telephone interview By mailing of questionnaries

Through Schedules

Step Six: Data Analysis

The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of 

categories.

This stage mainly include :

1.    Coding

2.   Editing

3.   Tabulation

Step Seven: Interpretation and Report Writing

Researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him.

Writing of report includes:

1.    the preliminary pages;

2.   the main text, and

3.    the end matter.

Types of Research-basic idea

Types of Research-basic idea

1 . Descriptive Research
It includes surveys and fact finding enquiries of different kind.
The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairsas it existsat present.
In social science and business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto researchfor descriptive research studies.
The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening.
Status on governance, impact of anti-ragging rule in management institute, Role of Amir khan shows on social change, popularity of govt

2. Analytical Research
The researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analysethese to make a critical evaluation of the material.

3. Applied (Action) Research
It aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial business organization.
The research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or business problem is an example of applied research.; Eye problem due to TV watching
Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a particular institution or the copy research (research to find out whether certain communications will be read and understood) or the marketing research or evaluation research are examples of applied research.
Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical problem.-Cause of drinking

4. Fundamental (basic or pure) research
It is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a theory.
“Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or basic research.”
Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research.
Similarly, research studies, concerning human behavior, are also examples of fundamental research. -Color and purchase behaviour
The basic research is directed towards finding information that has a broad base of application and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.

5. Quantitative Research
It is based on the measurementof quality or amount in quantity. Number of people like the brand due to different reasons
It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. –numbers,,%

6. Conceptual Research
It is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory.
It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterprets existing ones.
Ex.Bridge positioning could save wastage of expenditure on promotion
Religiosity could affect the Mall purchase behaviour

7. Empirical Research or Experimental Research

It relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory.

It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment. We can also call it as experimental research. Role of music in retail outlets –playing music and those not playing music and its role on consumer behaviour

In such research it is necessary to get facts firsthand, the researcher must first provide himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets up experimental design s which he thinks will manipulate the person or the materials concerned so a to bring for the desired information

Such research is the characterized by the experiment’s control over the variables under study and his deliberate manipulation of one them to study its effects.

Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in some way.:auto-carpurchase-gender and education and income

Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered to be the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis

8. Observational Studies
In this case the data are collected by observing some process which may be well understood. Other examples can be the study of hospital records to see if they indicate that the incidence of a disease is related to blood groups, or accident records might be used to access the effects of changing traffic laws.
A sample survey, which is used to gain peoples’ attitudes to political questions or consumer goods is also a type of observational study.

9. Historical research
It is involved with the study of past events
Factors leading to the development and growth of cooperative learning.
It utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point of time.
ExampleAfter Gandhi the changing leadership of politicians ,the effects of decisions of the AICTES On Indian Education.

10. Correlational research
It attempts to determine whether and to what degree, a relationship exists between two or more quantifiable (numerical) variables.
However, it is important to remember that just because there is a significant relationship between two variables it does not follow that one variable causes the other.
When two variables are correlated you can use the relationship to predict the value on one variable for a subject if you know that subject's value on the other variable.
Correlation implies prediction but not causation.
The investigator frequently uses the correlation coefficient to report the results of Correlational research.
Examplesare The relationship between intelligence and self-esteem or The relationship between anxiety and achievement or The use of an aptitude test to predict success in an algebra course.

11.Causal-effect comparative research
It attempts to establish cause-effect relationships among the variables of the study.
The attempt is to establish that values of the independent variable have a significant effect on the dependent variable.
This type of research usually involves group comparisons.
The groups in the study make up the values of the independent variable, for example gender (male versus female), preschool attendance versus no preschool attendance, or children with a working mother versus children without a working mother.

Research Proposal

Research Proposal:

A research proposal is intended to convince others that you have a worthwhile research project and that you have the competence and the work-plan to complete it. Generally, a research proposal should contain all the key elements involved in the research process and include sufficient information for the readers to evaluate the proposed study.

Regardless of your research area and the methodology you choose, all research proposals must address the following questions: What you plan to accomplish, why you want to do it and how you are going to do it.

The quality of your research proposal depends not only on the quality of your proposed project, but also on the quality of your proposal writing. A good research project may run the risk of rejection simply because the proposal is poorly written. Therefore, it pays if your writing is coherent, clear and compelling.

This paper focuses on proposal writing rather than on the development of research ideas.

·         Title:

It should be concise and descriptive. For example, the phrase, "An investigation of . . ." could be omitted. Often titles are stated in terms of a functional relationship, because such titles clearly indicate the independent and dependent variables. However, if possible, think of an informative but catchy title. An effective title not only pricks the reader's interest, but also predisposes him/her favourably towards the proposal.

·         Abstract:

It is a brief summary of approximately 300 words. It should include the research question, the rationale for the study, the hypothesis (if any), the method and the main findings. Descriptions of the method may include the design, procedures, the sample and any instruments that will be used.

·         Introduction:

·         The main purpose of the introduction is to provide the necessary background or context for your research problem. How to frame the research problem is perhaps the biggest problem in proposal writing.

·         If the research problem is framed in the context of a general, rambling literature review, then the research question may appear trivial and uninteresting. However, if the same question is placed in the context of a very focused and current research area, its significance will become evident.

·         A lot depends on your creativity, your ability to think clearly and the depth of your understanding of problem areas.

·         However, try to place your research question in the context of either a current "hot" area, or an older area that remains viable. Secondly, you need to provide a brief but appropriate historical backdrop. Thirdly, provide the contemporary context in which your proposed research question occupies the central stage. Finally, identify "key players" and refer to the most relevant and representative publications. In short, try to paint your research question in broad brushes and at the same time bring out its significance.

·         The introduction typically begins with a general statement of the problem area, with a focus on a specific research problem, to be followed by the rational or justification for the proposed study. The introduction generally covers the following elements:

·         State the research problem, which is often referred to as the purpose of the study.

·         Provide the context and set the stage for your research question in such a way as to show its necessity and importance.

·         Present the rationale of your proposed study and clearly indicate why it is worth doing.

·         Briefly describe the major issues and sub-problems to be addressed by your research.

·         Identify the key independent and dependent variables of your experiment. Alternatively, specify the phenomenon you want to study.

·         State your hypothesis or theory, if any. Set the delimitation or boundaries of your proposed research in order to provide a clear focus.

·         Literature Review:

Sometimes the literature review is incorporated into the introduction section. However, most professors prefer a separate section, which allows a more thorough review of the literature.

·         The literature review serves several important functions:

·         Ensures that you are not "reinventing the wheel".

·         Gives credits to those who have laid the groundwork for your research.

·         Demonstrates your knowledge of the research problem.

·         Demonstrates your understanding of the theoretical and research issues related to your research question.

·         Shows your ability to critically evaluate relevant literature information.

·         Indicates your ability to integrate and synthesize the existing literature.

·         Provides new theoretical insights or develops a new model as the conceptual framework for your research.

·         Convinces your reader that your proposed research will make a significant and substantial contribution to the literature (i.e., resolving an important theoretical issue or filling a major gap in the literature).

Most students  literature reviews suffer from the following problems:

·         Lacking organization and structure

·         Lacking focus, unity and coherence

·         Being repetitive and verbose

·         Failing to cite influential papers

·         Failing to keep up with recent developments

·         Failing to critically evaluate cited papers

·         Citing irrelevant or trivial references

·         Depending too much on secondary sources

Your scholarship and research competence will be questioned if any of the above applies to your proposal.

There are different ways to organize your literature review. Make use of subheadings to bring order and coherence to your review.

It is also helpful to keep in mind that you are telling a story to an audience. Try to tell it in a stimulating and engaging manner. Do not bore them, because it may lead to rejection of your worthy proposal.

·         Methods:

The Method section is very important because it tells your Research Committee how you plan to tackle your research problem. It will provide your work plan and describe the activities necessary for the completion of your project.

The guiding principle for writing the Method section is that it should contain sufficient information for the reader to determine whether methodology is sound. Some even argue that a good proposal should contain sufficient details for another qualified researcher to implement the study.

Please note that your research question may be best answered by qualitative research. However, since most mainstream psychologists are still biased against qualitative research, especially the phenomenological variety, you may need to justify your qualitative method.

More importantly, the data collection process in qualitative research has a far greater impact on the results as compared to quantitative research. That is another reason for greater care in describing how you will collect and analyze your data.

For quantitative studies, the method section typically consists of the following sections:

·         Design -Is it a questionnaire study or a laboratory experiment? What kind of design do you choose?

·         Subjects or participants - Who will take part in your study ? What kind of sampling procedure do you use?

·         Instruments - What kind of measuring instruments or questionnaires do you use? Why do you choose them? Are they valid and reliable?

·         Procedure - How do you plan to carry out your study? What activities are involved? How long does it take?

·         Results:

Obviously you do not have results at the proposal stage. However, you need to have some idea about what kind of data you will be collecting, and what statistical procedures will be used in order to answer your research question or test you hypothesis.

·         Discussion:

It is important to convince your reader of the potential impact of your proposed research. You need to communicate a sense of enthusiasm and confidence without exaggerating the merits of your proposal. That is why you also need to mention the limitations and weaknesses of the proposed research, which may be justified by time and financial constraints as well as by the early developmental stage of your research area.

v  Common Mistakes in Proposal Writing

1)      Failure to provide the proper context to frame the research question.

2)      Failure to delimit the boundary conditions for your research.

3)      Failure to cite landmark studies.

4)      Failure to accurately present the theoretical and empirical contributions by other researchers.

5)      Failure to stay focused on the research question.

6)      Failure to develop a coherent and persuasive argument for the proposed research.

7)      Too much detail on minor issues, but not enough detail on major issues.

8)      Too much rambling -- going "all over the map" without a clear sense of direction. (The best proposals move forward with ease and grace like a seamless river.)

9)      Too many citation lapses and incorrect references.

10)   Too long or too short.

11)   Failing to follow the APA style.

12)   Slopping writing.

Descriptive and Exploratory Research &

What is the difference between Descriptive and Exploratory Research?

• Descriptive research, being quantitative in nature, is restrictive in terms of open ended questions, which can be better answered using exploratory research.

• Flexibility of design is offered by exploratory research more than by descriptive research.

• Descriptive research is used more to arrive at statistical tools such as mean, average, median and frequency. On the other hand, exploratory research allows the researcher to develop designs that are more qualitative in nature.

• The amount of information known to the researcher at the start of the research plays an important role in deciding upon the type of research. With only vague ideas in the minds of the researcher, it is better to go for exploratory design. On the other hand, more information such as quantitative data allows a researcher to go for descriptive research that leads to unearthing causal relationships.

• Exploratory research needs to be conducted first to have a platform that allows for collation of data required in descriptive research.

PROBABILITY & independent varaiable

PROBABILITY AND NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Sampling can be a confusing concept for managers carrying out survey research projects. By knowing some basic information about survey sampling designs and how they differ, you can understand the advantages and disadvantages of various approaches.

The two main methods used in survey research are probability sampling and non-probability sampling. The big difference is that in probability sampling all persons have a chance of being selected, and results are more likely to accurately reflect the entire population. While it would always be nice to have a probability-based sample, other factors need to be considered (availability, cost, time, what you want to say about results). Some additional characteristics of the two methods are listed below.

Probability Sampling

·         You have a complete sampling frame. 

You have contact information for the entire population.

               You can select a random sample from your population

Since all persons (or “units”) have an equal chance of being selected for your survey, you can randomly select participants without missing entire portions of your audience.

·         You can generalize your results from a random sample.

With this data collection method and a decent response rate, you can extrapolate your results to the entire population.

·         Can be more expensive and time-consuming than convenience or purposive sampling.

Non-probability Sampling 

·         Used when there isn’t an exhaustive population list available.

Some units are unable to be selected, therefore you have no way of knowing the size and effect of sampling error (missed persons, unequal representation, etc.). 

·         Not random. 

·         Can be effective when trying to generate ideas and getting feedback

But you cannot generalize your results to an entire population with a high level of confidence. Quota samples (males and females, etc.) are an example.

·         More convenient and less costly

But doesn’t hold up to expectations of probability theory.

What is dependent and independent varaiable?

A Variable

A variable is an object, event, idea, feeling, time period, or any other type of category you are trying to measure. There are two types of variables-independent and dependent.

Independent variable

An independent variable is exactly what it sounds like. It is a variable that stands alone and isn't changed by the other variables you are trying to measure.

For example, someone's age might be an independent variable. Other factors (such as what they eat, how much they go to school, how much television they watch) aren't going to change a person's age. In fact, when you are looking for some kind of relationship between variables you are trying to see if the independent variable causes some kind of change in the other variables, or dependent variables.

Dependent variable

Just like an independent variable, a dependent variable is exactly what it sounds like. It is something that depends on other factors.

For example, a test score could be a dependent variable because it could change depending on several factors such as how much you studied, how much sleep you got the night before you took the test, or even how hungry you were when you took it. Usually when you are looking for a relationship between two things you are trying to find out what makes the dependent variable change the way it does.

Many people have trouble remembering which the independent variable is and which the dependent variable is. An easy way to remember is to insert the names of the two variables you are using in this sentence in the way that makes the most sense. Then you can figure out which is the independent variable and which is the dependent variable:

(Independent variable) causes a change in (Dependent Variable) and it isn't possible that (Dependent Variable) could cause a change in (Independent Variable).

For example:

(Time Spent Studying) causes a change in (Test Score) and it isn't possible that (Test Score) could cause a change in (Time Spent Studying).

We see that "Time Spent Studying" must be the independent variable and "Test Score" must be the dependent variable because the sentence doesn't make sense the other way around.